بنات الصوتياااااااااااات

[afnan]

باقي 5 ايام على الاختبار مافي اى تفاعل ايش مسوين ايش فاهمين ايش مو فاهمين كيف حتذاكرووو اتفاعلو ياجمااااااااااااااااااااعه

[دايم النور]

ممكن سؤال في الصوتيات :
س1/ ما الفرق بين phonemic and Allophonic
وكيف طريقة السؤال هنا .

[afnan]

A phoneme is a family of similar sounds which a language treats as being "the same". Members of the family are called its allophones.
In English, [p] and [ph] are allophones of the /p/ phoneme.

Switching allophones of the same phoneme won't change the meaning of the word: [sphIt] still means 'spit'.

Switching allophones of different phonemes will change the meaning of the word or result in a nonsense word: [skIt] and [stIt] do not mean 'spit'.

Different languages can have different groupings for their phonemes. [p] and [ph] belong to the same phoneme in English, but to different phonemes in Chinese. In Chinese, switching [p] and [ph] does change the meaning of the word.

A broad tranion uses only one symbol for all allophones of the same phoneme. This is enough information to distinguish a word from other words of the language. What details you have to include in a broad tranion will depend on what language or dialect you are transcribing.

[afnan]

It is the task of phonology to study which differences in sound are related to differences in meaning in a given language, in which way the discriminative elements ... are related to each other, and the rules according to which they may be combined into words and sentences."

Linguistic units which cannot be substituted for each other without a change in meaning can be referred to as linguistically contrastive or significant units. Such units may be phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic etc.

Logically, this takes the form:-





IF

unit X

in context A

GIVES meaning 1





AND IF

unit Y

in context A

GIVES meaning 2





THEN

unit X AND unit Y

belong to separate linguistic units







eg.

IF

sound [k]

in context [_æt]

GIVES meaning "cat"





AND IF

sound [m]

in context [_æt]

GIVES meaning "mat"





THEN

sound [k] and sound [m]

belong to separate linguistic units




Phonemes

Phonemes are the linguistically contrastive or significant sounds (or sets of sounds) of a language. Such a contrast is usually demonstrated by the existence of minimal pairs or contrast in identical environment (C.I.E.). Minimal pairs are pairs of words which vary only by the identity of the segment (another word for a single speech sound) at a single location in the word (eg. [mæt] and [kæt]). If two segments contrast in identical environment then they must belong to different phonemes. A paradigm of minimal phonological contrasts is a set of words differing only by one speech sound. In most languages it is rare to find a paradigm that contrasts a complete class of phonemes (eg. all vowels, all consonants, all stops etc.).

eg. the English stop consonants could be defined by the following set of minimally contrasting words:-

i) /pɪn/ vs /bɪn/ vs /tɪn/ vs /dɪn/ vs /kɪn/

Only /ɡ/ does not occur in this paradigm and at least one minimal pair must be found with each of the other 5 stops to prove conclusively that it is not a variant form of one of them.

ii) /ɡɐn/ vs /pɐn/ vs /bɐn/ vs /tɐn/ vs /dɐn/

Again, only five stops belong to this paradigm. A single minimal pair contrasting /ɡ/ and /k/ is required now to fully demonstrate the set of English stop consonants.

iii) /ɡæɪn/ vs /kæɪn/

Sometimes it is not possible to find a minimal pair which would support the contrastiveness of two phonemes and it is necessary to resort to examples of contrast in analogous environment (C.A.E.). C.A.E. is almost a minimal pair, however the pair of words differs by more than just the pair of sounds in question. Preferably, the other points of variation in the pair of words are as remote as possible (and certainly never adjacent and preferably not in the same syllable) from the environment of the pairs of sounds being tested. eg. /ʃ/ vs /ʒ/ in English are usually supported by examples of pairs such as "pressure" [preʃə] vs "treasure" [treʒə], where only the initial consonants differ and are sufficiently remote from the opposition being examined to be considered unlikely to have any conditioning effect on the selection of phones. The only true minimal pairs for these two sounds in English involve at least one word (often a proper noun) that has been borrowed from another language (eg. "Confucian" [kənfjʉːʃən] vs "confusion" [kənfjʉːʒən], and "Aleutian" [əlʉːʃən] vs "allusion" [əlʉːʒən]).

A syntagmatic analysis of a speech sound, on the other hand, identifies a unit's identity within a language. In other words, it indicates all of the locations or contexts within the words of a particular language where the sound can be found.

For example, a syntagm of the phone [n] in English could be in the form:-
( #CnV..., #nV..., ...Vn#, ...VnC#, ...VnV..., etc.)

whilst [ŋ] in English would be:-
(...Vŋ#, ...VŋC#, ...VŋV..., etc)

but would not include the word initial forms of the kind described for [n].

Note that in the above examples, "#" is used to represent a word or syllable boundary, "V" represents any vowel, and "C" represents another consonant.

For example, examples of the type "#CnV..." would include "snow" [snəʉ], "snort" [snoːt] and "snooker" [snʉkə]. In this case, the only consonant (for English) that can occupy the initial "C" slot is the phoneme /s/, and so the generalised pattern could be rewritten as "#snV...".

Allophones

Allophones are the linguistically non-significant variants of each phoneme. In other words a phoneme may be realised by more than one speech sound and the selection of each variant is usually conditioned by the phonetic environment of the phoneme. Occasionally allophone selection is not conditioned but may vary form person to person and occasion to occasion (ie. free variation).

A phoneme is a set of allophones or individual non-contrastive speech segments. Allophones are sounds, whilst a phoneme is a set of such sounds.

Allophones are usually relatively similar sounds which are in mutually exclusive or complementary distribution (C.D.). The C.D. of two phonemes means that the two phonemes can never be found in the same environment (ie. the same environment in the senses of position in the word and the identity of adjacent phonemes). If two sounds are phonetically similar and they are in C.D. then they can be assumed to be allophones of the same phoneme.

eg. in many languages voiced and voiceless stops with the same place of articulation do not contrast linguistically but are rather two phonetic realisations of a single phoneme (ie. /p/=[p,b],/t/=[t,d], and /k/=[k,ɡ]). In other words, voicing is not contrastive (at least for stops) and the selection of the appropriate allophone is in some contexts fully conditioned by phonetic context (eg. word medially and depending upon the voicing of adjacent consonants), and is in some contexts either partially conditioned or even completely unconditioned (eg. word initially, where in some dialects of a language the voiceless allophone is preferred, in others the voiced allophone is preferred, and in others the choice of allophone is a matter of individual choice).

eg. Some French speakers choose to use the alveolar trill [r] when in the village and the more prestigious uvular trill [ʀ] when in Paris. Such a choice is made for sociological reasons.

Phonetic similarity

Allophones must be phonetically similar to each other. In analysis, this means you can assume that highly dissimilar sounds are separate phonemes (even if they are in complementary distribution). For this reason no attempt is made to find minimal pairs which contrast vowels with consonants. Exactly what can be considered phonetically similar may vary somewhat from language family to language family and so the notion of phonetic similarity can seem to be quite unclear at times. Sounds can be phonetically similar from both articulatory and auditory points of view and for this reason one often finds a pair of sounds that vary greatly in their place of articulation but are sufficiently similar auditorily to be considered phonetically similar (eg. [h] and [ç] are voiceless fricatives which are distant in terms of glottal and palatal places of articulation, but which nevertheless are sufficiently similar auditorily to be allophones of a single phoneme in some languages such as Japanese).

eg. In English, /h/ and /ŋ/ are in complementary distribution. /h/ only ever occurs at the beginning of a syllable (head, heart, enhance, perhaps) whilst /ŋ/ only ever occurs at the end of a syllable (sing, singer, finger). They are, however, so dissimilar that no one regards them as allophones of the one phoneme. They vary in place and manner of articulation, as well as voicing. Further the places of articulation (velar vs glottal) are quite remote from each other and /h/ is oral whilst /ŋ/ is nasal.

According to Hockett (1942), "...if a and b are members of one phoneme, they share one or more features". Phonetic similarity is therefore based on the notion of shared features. Such judgments of similarity will vary from language to language and there are no universal criteria of similarity.

The following pairs of sounds might be considered to be similar.

i) two sounds differing only in voicing:
[pb] [td] [kɡ] [ɸβ] [θð] [sz] [ʃʒ] [xɣ] etc...

ii) two sounds differing in manner of articulation only as plosive vs fricative. The sibilant or grooved fricatives [s,z,ʃ,ʒ] are excluded from this category as they are quite different auditorily from the other ("central") fricatives.
[pɸ] [kx] [bβ] [ɡɣ] etc...

iii) Any pairs of consonants close in place of articulation and differing in no other contrastive feature:
[sʃ] [zʒ] [nɲŋ] [lɭ] [lʎ] [mɱ], etc...

iv) Any other pairs of consonants which are close in articulation and differ by one other feature but are nevertheless frequently members of the same phoneme
[lɹ] [cɡ] [tθ] [dð]

In languages where voicing is non-contrastive, two phones differing in voicing and only slightly in place of articulation might be considered similar eg. [cɡ] etc.)

Further, for the purposes of this type of analysis, the place of articulation of the apicodental fricatives [θ,ð] is considered to be close enough to that of the alveolar stops [t,d] to be considered phonetically similar.

v) Any two vowels differing in only one feature or articulated with adjacent tongue positions
[æ ɐ] [i ɪ] [ɐː ɐ] [i y] [ɑ ɑ̃]

Although it is implied above that the notion of "phonetic similarity" is in some way less linguistically abstract (more phonetic?) than the notion of complementary distribution, it is, nevertheless, a quite abstract concept. The are no obvious and consistent acoustic, auditory or articulatory criteria for phonetic similarity. Further, since a notion of similarity implies a continuum the following question must be asked of two phones in complementary distribution. How similar must they be before they are to be considered members of the same phoneme?

There are many examples of very similar phones which are perceived by native speakers to belong to separate phonemes. In English, for example, a word terminal voiceless stop may be either released and aspirated or unreleased. The homorganic (1) voiced stop may also be released or unreleased. Often the unreleased voiced and voiceless stops may actually be identical in every way except that the preceding vowel is lengthened before the phonologically voiced stop. In terms of phonetic similarity, the two unreleased stops may actually be identical and yet be perceived by native speakers to belong to different phonemes.

For example:-
/kɐp/→[kɐpʰ] ... [kɐp̚]
/kɐb/→[kɐˑb] ... [kɐˑb̚] ... [kɐˑp̚]
(nb. " ̚ " means unreleased stop and " ˑ " means partially lengthened vowel)

Conversely, phones which are very dissimilar (at least from certain perspectives) may be felt by native speakers to belong to a single phoneme.



eg.

Japanese(2)

/h/

→

[ɸ] before /u/

eg.[ɸuku] "luck"





→

[ç] before /i/

eg.[çito] "man"





→

[h] before /e,a,o/

eg.[hana]


From an articulatory perspective, these phones seem very dissimilar (bilabial, palatal, and glottal) being produced at the extreme ends of the vocal tract. They are, however, relatively similar acoustically and auditorily (they are all relatively weak voiceless fricatives). This kind of phonetic similarity is listener orientated rather than speaker orientated.



eg.

English

/t/

→

[ʔ] medially and finally in some dialects
eg. Cockney - "butter", "wait"





→

[t] initially



nb.



/k/

→

[k,ʔ] does not occur although they are articulatorily closer

[afnan]

Phonemic Pattern

A pair of phones in complementary distribution may sometimes be classified into separate phonemes on the basis of phonemic pattern. In other words, is there a group of phonemes which exhibit a similar pattern of distribution (eg. clustering behaviour, morphology, etc.) to one of the phones being examined? In the case of the pair [h], [ŋ] there are some similarities in patterning between [h] and certain fricatives, and between [ŋ] and the nasals.

For example, there is a suffix which when placed before a word commencing with a stop has the effect of negating the original meaning. The suffix has the form /ɪ/ plus the nasal homorganic with the stop.



ie.

"impossible"

[ɪmp...]





"intolerable"

[ɪnt...]





"incalculable"

[ɪŋk...] or [ɪnk...]





(free variation in citation form, but homorganic predominating in rapid speech)


Clearly, this pattern suggests that [ŋ] behaves in some instances with the same phonological pattern as the other nasals. It does in fact raise the question of [ŋ] being an allophone of /n/. This was indeed the case until the 1600's, but now there are quite a few minimal pairs which have since crept into the language. ("sin"/"sing", "run"/"rung").

[دايم النور]

مشكورة وما قصرتي وجزآك الله كل خير

[little Angel]

والله أنا ذاكرت من شرح أستاذة منى البلوي بمحاضرات السنترا...
وفي أشياء مو مفهومة زي الفونيم والفون والالوفون...
كيف نفرق بينها وهذا اللي أتذكرة وبس...

[لمارمبارك]

اختي اذا تشرحي لي الفاول لاني وصلت لها وتنحت يعني مافهمتها اذا فاهمتها باالله اشرحي لي

[nour al3mr]

الفاول تابعوا لها مقاطع في اليوتيــــوب راح تفيدكم ..

[WARM HEARTED]

الفونيم هو كل حرف ساكن في كلمة وتغيره بحرف آخر اي فونيم آخر ينتج كلمة جديدة بمعنى مختلف
مثال كلمة car الفونيم c لو غيرته بالفونيم t ينتج كلمة tar وهي بمعنى مختلف
بينما الالوفون هو اختلاف طرق النطق للحرف الواحد في كلمة دون ان يتغير المعنى
مثال كلمة sky نطق حرفk مرة بنفخ الهوا ومرة بدون نفخ الهوا دون ان يتغير معنى كلمة sky
مثال آخر s الجمع مرة تنطقها s مثل cats ومرة تنطقها z مثل dogs دون ان يتغير معنى s وهي للجمع فكل مرة تختلف الطريقة للنطق تسمى فون ومجموعها يسمى الوفون
ارخو ان يكون الشرح واضح ومفهوم