السلام عليكم ورحمة الله
1/ نسخت لكم ثلاث مصطلحات بالشرح من الكتاب لأن السلايدات مرت عليها المس مسميات فقط وللمقارنه راح تحتاجي تفرقي بين الثلاث انواع
2/ عملت بعض وأبرز المقارنات حسب اجتهادي واعذروني لو هناك خطأ وارجو تنبيهي عليه فورا (حرصت ان لايحصل خطأ)
3/ قلت (بعض) أي انني لم اجمع جميع التعاريف الناقصه ولم اكتب جميع المقارنات
Entailment is the relation between two propositions— let’s label them ‘p’ and ‘q’—such that if p is true, q must also be true, but if q is true, it does not necessarily follow that p is true. If it is true that my necktie is (entirely) maroon, is it true that my necktie
is red? If it is true that my necktie is red, is it true that my necktie is
maroon?
Paraphrase is the relation between two propositions, p and
q, such that if either is true, the other is necessarily true also, and if
either is false, the other is false. If it is true that my necktie was cheap, is it true or false that my necktie was inexpensive? If it is
true that my necktie was inexpensive, is it true or false that my necktie
was cheap?
Contradiction is the relation between two propositions
such that if either is true, the other is necessarily false. If my necktie
was cheap, is it true or false that my necktie was expensive? If it
was expensive, was it cheap?
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Pragmatics &Semantics
Pragmatics is another branch of linguistics that is concerned
with meaning.
Pragmatics and semantics can be viewed as different
parts, or different aspects, of the same general study.
*Both are concerned with people’s ability to use language meaningfully.
-
While semantics is mainly concerned with a speaker’s competence to use the language
system in producing meaningful utterances and processing (comprehending) utterances produced by others,
- the chief focus of pragmatics is a person’s ability to derive meanings from specific kinds of speech
situations—to recognize what the speaker is referring to, to relate
new information to what has gone before, to interpret what is said
from background knowledge about the speaker and the topic of
discourse, and to infer or ‘fill in’ information that the speaker takes
for granted and doesn’t bother to say.
- Obviously the boundary between semantics and pragmatics is vague, and at the present time various
scholars are apt to disagree about where the boundary is. Some of
the contents of this chapter may be considered more ‘pragmatics’
than ‘semantics’ by some people.
pragmatics The study of language in use, including the ways in which we
derive meanings from the context and from knowledge of speakers
apart from the linguistic meanings of what is said.
Semantics is the systematic study of meaning, and linguistic
semantics is the study of how languages organize and express meanings.
semantics The study of meaning expressed by language.
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syntagmatic relations & paradigmatic relation
syntagmatic relations, the association of two or more words
in a sequence (not necessarily right next to one another) so that
the meaning of each is affected by the other(s) and together their
meanings contribute to the meaning of the larger unit, the phrase
or sentence. occurs in the same phrases or sentences, in the way
that arbitrary can co-occur with judge, happy with child or with
accident, sit with chair, read with book or newspaper.
syntagmatic The relation of words to one another when they form a construction.
paradigmatic relation,
*a relation of choice.
We choose from among a number of possible words that can fill the
same blank. For example we can say
a red apple or a green apple ---- red hair or blonde hair
the words may be similar in meaning or have little in
common but each is different from the others.
*A relation which is contrastive. Instead of saying The judge was arbitrary, for instance, we can say The judge was cautious
or careless, or busy or irritable, and so on with numerous other possible descriptors.
paradigmatic The relation of items that can substitute for one another at
the same place in a sentence.
syntagmatic relations can be viewed as horizontal and paradigmatic
relations as vertical.
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Utterance and sentence
utterance : a stretch of speech by one person; it may consist of a single
word, a single sentence, or numerous sentences.
sentence : a grammatical construction that is complete in itself.
ارجعي لشرحها بالسلايدات او الكتاب للفهم اكثر
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Why distinguish between sentence and utterance?
Because it is important to recognize what meanings are communicated to us in
language and which meanings we derive from the contexts in which
language is used.
Because it is important to distinguish between:
linguistic meaning, what is communicated by particular pieces of
language, and
utterance meaning, what a certain individual meant
by saying such-and-such in a particular place, at a particular time,
and to certain other individuals.
The utterance “Our visit to the factory
was a wonderful experience” may be spoken as a joke, or sarcastically,
or as a straightforward report, among other possibilities.
The sentence
Our visit to the factory was a wonderful experience has none of
these meanings in itself—or, to put it differently, it has potentially
any of these meanings.
An utterance is often part of a larger discourse—a conversation,
a formal lecture, a poem, a short story, a business letter, or a love
letter, among other possibilities. A spoken discourse is any act of
speech that occurs in a given place and during a given period of
time. A written discourse may be the record of something that has
been spoken, or it may originate for the purpose of being performed
aloud, like a play or speech, or it may exist without ever having been spoken or intended to be spoken, like most articles and books.
The linguistic context of an utterance can make a difference of meaning,
as well as the social context.
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Reference and denotation
distinction betweeen reference and denotation:
1/ Reference The relation between a language form and some physical entity, which is the referent of that sign,
Denotation The objective relationship between a linguistic form and its referent.
2/ Reference is the relation between a language expression such as
This door, both doors, the dog, another dog and whatever the expression
pertains to in a particular situation of language use, including what
a speaker may imagine,
Denotation involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the nonlinguistic entities to which it refers &
Denotation is the potential of a word like
door or dog to enter into such language expressions.
3/ Reference is the way speakers and hearers use an expression successfully;
Denotation is the knowledge they have that makes their use successful.
جمله اعتراضيه فقط للتذكير
The denotative meaning of a word is its definition in a dictionary.
أتمنى لكم التوفيق
أتمنى من المشرفات تنسيق الشروحات بملفات حتى ماتضيع