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phonology/ study the system of a language.

Morphology/ looks at the way words are formed.

Syntax

Chapter 1


Syntax/ describe the way words fit together to form sentences or utterance.

Semantics- pragmatics/ study the meaning.

To study syntax:

By analyzing or describing sentences.

To make this clear by practice it by looking at some examples of English sentence and the example will be written
because it tends to be more explicit and complete.

Constituents / a sentence consists of words or alternatively words.

Ungrammatical/a sentence is not semantically well formed.

Word category/ the way in which words can be put together to form syntactically well-formed.

Interchangeable words/ they share the same type of word. They belong to the same word category.

Determiners/ a small group of words and the act to limit or determine to some extent the possible rang of things the
noun can refer to.

Verb/ is a word which describe an action.

Proper noun/ names of specific items such as animals, places, and people.

Common noun/all other nouns.

Phrase/ a unit within a sentence.

Noun phrase / is phrase category.

Subject takes the form of noun phrase

Predicate/ what follows the subject.

Verb phrase/ is the form of the predicate

Predicator/ the function of the verb.

Advantage of tree diagram is (the hierarchy of the constituents can be seen at a glance )

also gives visual information on the function of the constituents.

Hierarchy/is that some constituents contain other constituents.

Node / each point on the tree.

Dominate/the nod that are higher up the tree are said to dominate those that are further down.


Re-write rolls/ to represent structure
1-To show what the sentence can consist of
2-the ability to show that some constituents are optional
3- it becomes possible to describe the structure of many sentences of English all at once
4- shows up the regularities in the way the deferent category behave


Chapter 2

Adverb/ is modifying the verb/it works to define the sense of the verb by telling something of the way it is done.

Degree adverb/ tells us to what degree something is done/to modify or limit the sense of an adverb.
Sentence adverb/ can appear in a rang of sentence position /they modify the whole sentence.
Sentence adverb is often differentiated by a comma.
Adjective/ describes word/ to modify the sense of an noun


Chapter 3
Transitive verb/normally has to have a direct object to be complete.
Intransitive verb/ is a class of verb which does not have a direct object.
Ditransitive verb/requires two objects one of these is direct object, the other is indirect object.
Intensive verb/what is given after the verb relates back to the subject
The bit that comes after the verb function as the subject complement.
Complex-transitive verb/this type of verbs the complement relate to the object.
Prepositional verb/is one which require a prepositional phrase to be complete.
Declaratives/they make some kind of declaration or assertion.
Imperative/ is used to give command or instructions.


Chapter 4
Verb group/ consist of one or more than one element
All complete verb group have to include a lexical verb which appear last in the group form the head of the verb group
Auxiliaries/ additional or giving help/ modify the lexical verb by indicating modality, or aspect, or voice, or may signify
tense.
Tense/ there are two tenses in English: present and past ………. Tense is signified by the form of the lexical verb.
Modality/ allow us to express whether a state of affairs is likely, possible, and so on.
Model Auxiliary dos not carry tense .
Infinitive/ the form of the verb which appear after a modal
The Infinitive verb carry no endings.

Primary Auxiliaries:
Perfect aspect and progressive aspect
Perfect aspect/is indicated by the presence of the auxiliary verb have.
Perfect aspect does carry tense.
The form of the verb which always follow the perfect auxiliary is called past participle.
Each element of the verb group dictates the shape or form of the following one.
progressive aspect/ is indicated by the presence of the auxiliary verb be.
The form of the verb which always follow the perfect auxiliary is called present participle.


Passive voice:
voice/ refers to whether a sentence or utterance is an active or passive
the verb be is followed by the past participle.


Do/ when it appears as an auxiliary is followed by a bare infinitive.


Chapter 5
Pronouns:
Personal pronoun/refer to specific entities. (ex. He, she …)
Indefinite/ refer to unspecific entities. (ex. Some, something, anything, any one….)
Demonstrative/ (ex. This, that, these ….)
Interrogative/ (ex. Who, which, what, whose)
Possessive/ (ex. Mine, yours, hers…..)
Reflexive/ (ex. myself, herself……)
Pre- modification:
Determiners:
Demonstrative/ (ex. This, that, these ….)
Quantifiers/(ex. Some, something, anything, any one….)
Possessive/ (ex. Mine, yours, hers…..)
WH- Determiners/(ex. Who, which, what, whose)
post- modification:
preposition phrase after the noun is acting to modify the noun.
Relative clause:
Main clause(s1) is more complete than the subordinate clause(s2)
in this case the type of subordinate clause is an Relative clause

Chapter 6

One way to joining clauses together is to subordinate one to anther; another way is to coordinate them.

subordination
Hypotactic/ a style of speech or writing using lots of subordination.
Paratactic/ a style of speech or writing using little subordination.
Relative clause: it is not necessary to be introduced by a subordinator

(ex. the cat that loves dogs is mad)

Adverbial clause: add information in relation to manner, time, place, and so on. They tend to answer the questions how?
When? Where? Why?

Adverbial clause begin with subordinator.

(ex. I well give you the next clue when you are ready)

Noun clause: a subordinate clause func on as subject is immediately dominated by s1 and a subordinate clause func on
as direct object is immediately dominated by VP.

(ex. how he deals with the deficit is grossly important)

Complement clause: a subordinate clause with an intensive verb and function as subject complement.

(ex. The most important thing is that you are happy)

Complement of A: complement adjectives

(ex. He made her sorry that she knew him)

Non-finite verbs:

Finite clause: that is clause where the verb carry tense.

Non finite/ untensed verb. (ex. She wants to holed the baby)

Post-modifier/ (ex. The letter for you to type is on your desk)

Adverbial/ (ex. Whistling cheerfully he typed the letters)

Subject/like noun clause (ex. Going to parties is fun)

Direct object/ like noun clause (she wants to hold the baby)

Complement of A: complement adjectives (ex. she made him sorry to go)

Coordination/ joining clauses together by coordinate them.

Coordinators are: and, but, and or.


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