[nour al3mr]

الفصـــل الثــآمن في الطبعة القديمة 1998 يقابله الفصل التاسع في الطبعة الجديدة
Chapter 8/9: Phonological alternations, processes and rules

Alternations vs. Processes vs. Rules

when we have alternations between two sounds and we can predict which sound is the proper one in a word, in this case we are dealing with the environment in which the phoneme occurs
ex. we know that /p/ aspirated sound couldn't occur after /s/ sound
such as [spit] notice that: /p/ sound is preceded by the fricatives sound,/s/, so there isn't a complete obstruction
so as a result the /p/ sound is not aspirated

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Aspiration/ A VOICELESS STOP is aspirated when it occurs in absolute word initial position BEFORE A STRESSED VOWEL

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RULES are formal statements which express the relationship between units on the different levels of the phonological component
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In the case of ASPIRATION which we have mentioned above, we can formulate a simple rules to express the change

[all voiceless stops] become [+ spread glottis = ASPIRATION PROCESS] in the environment of being word Initial position and followed by stressed vowels

in page 115 you will find the rule, IT IS VERY IMPORTANT YOU SHOULD MEMORIES IT

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Alternations Types

Phonological Alternations come in many SHAPES, SIZES & the PROCESSES behind them are equally varied

in page 115 in the middle of the page you will see some examples each one of them is illustrating to specific condition = alternation



we have 3 different types of alternations

1/ Phonetically conditioned alternations
2/ Phonetically & Morphologically conditioned alternations
3/ Phonetically, Morphologically & Lexically conditioned alternations

let's take each one of them and explain it

1/ Phonetically conditioned alternations

this alternation is OBLIGATORY

it's affected by the PHONETIC ENVIRONMENT in which the phones in question occur, which no other factors being relevant

EX. If a Vowel phone in English is followed by a NASAL CONSONANT, the vowel is NASALISED irrespective of anything else

IMPORTANT:
it is very DIFFICULT for English speakers to AVOID NASALISING VOWEL in this position

this is the condition of alternation
but we want to know the processes which will happen in such cases
one of them is Assimilation
the alveolar nasal /n/ assimilates to the PLACE OF ARTICULATION of a following LABIAL OR VELAR consonants
, whether this is within a word or across a word boundary

Other alternations of this sort in English include ASPIRATED vs. NON ASPIRATED VOICELESS STOPS & LATERAL SOUNDS

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THE SECOND TYPE OF CONDITION IS

2/ Phonetically & Morphologically conditioned alternations

HERE WE WILL DEAL WITH PHONETICALLY & MORPHOLOGICALLY CONDITIONS IN THE SAME TIME

MORPHOLOGY = WORD STRUCTURE such as PLURAL
IF THE NOUN STEAM ENDS IN A SIBILANT, THE PLURAL TAKES THE FORM [ɪz] a
If the final segment is a VOICELESS NON-SIBILANT, the plural is A VOICELESS ALVEOLAR FRICATIVES [S] a
If the final segment is A VOICED NON-SIBILANT, the fricative VOICED[z] a

IMPORTANT: UNLIKE THE PHONETICALLY ALTERNATION conditions, WHICH WE HAD DISCUSSED ABOVE,THIS ALTERNATION is NOT NECESSARY OCCURS

SO, THE PHONETIC ENVIRONMENT CANNOT BE THE ONLY RELEVANT CONDITIONING FACTOR; something else must be taken into account as well.

EX. the word "dog" it ends with voiced stop sound so when we want to make it as plural form, we should add [z] sound (sound agreement takes place)a


IMPORTANT: this type of alternation is obligatory and automatic; it occurs whenever both the PHONETIC & MORPHOLOGICAL conditions are met.

When an alternation behaves in this PREDICTABLE, automatic manner, applying freely to new forms, it is known as PRODUCTIVE

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THE LAST TYPE OF ALTERNATION IS

3/ Phonetically, Morphologically & Lexically conditioned alternations

HERE YOU NEED TO KNOW THE DEFINITION OF VELAR SOFTENING & VOWEL SHIFT OR TRISYLLABIC SHORTENING

IN THIS ALTERNATION SOME INTERNAL SOUNDS WILL CHANG BECAUSE THE FACTOR OF VOICING OR PLACE OF ARTICULATION

EX. LEAF IS END BY [F] SOUND
WHEN WE MAKE IT AS PLURAL, THIS F SOUND WILL CHANGE TO [v] SOUND

ALSO THE WORD ELECTRIC , IT ENDS WITH [k] sound but when you ELECTRICITY
THE K SOUND CHANGES TO S SOUND

SO THE CHANGE WHICH HAPPENED OCCURS LEXICALLY

ANOTHER EXAMPLE TALKS ABOUT SHORTENING THE VOWEL
FROM LONG VOWEL TO SHORT VOWEL

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AT THE END OF ALTERNATIONS, WE HAVE SOMETHING CALLED NON-PHONOLOGICAL ALTERNATIONS: SUPPLETION

IT OCCURS WITH IRREGULAR PLURAL NOUNS
SUCH AS MOUSE/ MICE
THERE IS NO PHONOLOGICAL COMPONENTS BETWEEN THESE WORDS

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Formal Rules & Rule Writing

p.120
A rule in phonology consists of some PHONOLOGICAL ELEMENT_TYPICALLY A SEGMENT OR A FEATURE_ WHICH UNDERGOES SOME CHANGE IN A PARTICULAR ENVIRONMENT

A becomes B in the environment of preceded by X and followed by Y

في صفحـة 120 بدء بشرح حـآلات الـ t sound وكيف تتحول لصوت آخر بسبب تأثير البيئة المحيطة بهـآ

- فَمـرة ستتحول الـ t إلى flap
- مـرة إلى glottal stop وهذهـ القـآعدة تنقسم لقسميـــن
مرة عندما يكون لدينـآ voiceless stops
ومرة عندمـآ نتحدث عن الـ REINFORCED
وهي بمعنى زيـآدة التأكيد [استخدآمهـآ ماشبة للشدة ّ باللغة العربية ]

1/ قـآعدة التـآب TAP OR FLAP

Ex. The Flapping rule of American English
the rule is the following
/t/ becomes flap when it occurs between 2 vowels but the second one is not stressed

آول قاعدة وrule لدينـآ خاص بالفـــلآب .. وهو نطق صوت الـتآء t بسرعة وخفة كَـ النطق المستخدم للأمريكـآن
متى تحدث هذهـ القـآعدة ..؟
عندمـآ يأتي صوت التـآء ويكون بين حرفين علة vowels
بشرط أن يكون صوت العلة الثـآني غير مشدد [رخو] والصوت الوحيد هو الشوآ schwa

مثـآل عليها كلمة letter /ˈletə(r)/a

و الفورم الخـآص بهذآ الرول تجدوهـ بالكتـآب صفحة 120 فقـرة 8.4

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القـآعدة الثـآنية قـآعدة الـ GLOTTALISATION
فقـرهـ 8.5 بصفحـة 120

الجزء الاول من هذهـ القاعدة يختص بِـ
explains the rules of glottal stop WITH VOICELESS STOPS p,t,k

مهم أن يآتي قبلها صوت علة و بعدها لا يأتي شيء
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القـآعدة الثـآنية من الـ glottal stop تستخدم عند التوكيد على الكلام و التـآكيد كالشدة
في صفحة 121 القـآعدة بآعلى الصفحة

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الرولـز الذي يلي ذلك خـآص بِـ Parentheses Notations

we are used them to express more complex RELATIONSHIPS & OPERATIONS by enclosed optional elements in rules

الأقوآس () تستخدم عندما نتحدث عن صوت ويكون لنـآ الاختيار اما بابقـآءهـ و نطقه أو حذفه
فهو شيء اختيـــآري

مثـآل عليه قاعدة الـ dark /l/ sound = velarisation

ex. bulk & fell

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قاعدة الـ Braces
= Curly brackets
we are used them to express an either or relationship between TWO ENVIRONMENTS

فقـرة 8.11

ويمكن استخدآمها أيضـآ في قاعدة الـ GLOTTAL STOP التي سبق شرحها بذكر انه لها حالتين الاولى في نهاية الـ -V SOUNDS ,الثانية لـ REENFORCE


يفيد هذآ الاستخدآم لهذة الاقوآس {} و () في وقت وآحد و RULE وآحد
أنها تسـآعد على بنـآء MORE COMPLEX RULES

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قاعدة الـ SUBSCRIBERS & SUPERS

الـ SUPERS عبـآرة عن الرقم الصغير الموجود آعلـــــــى الصوت ويمثل الحد الأعلى لعدد الأصوآت اللاحقة

الـ SUBSCRIBERS عبـآرة عن الرقم الصغير الموجود آسفل الصوت ويمثل الحد الآدني لعدد الأصوات اللاحقة

تعـآريف و آمثلة بالصفحة 132 فقـرة 8.15

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Alpha-notation

نستخدم حروف الإغريق الألفـآ و البيتـآ عندما نريد أن نعمل تكـآفوء و تعادل في كفتي صفات الحروف

ومثـآل على ذلك قـآعدة النـآيزل Nasalisation


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ننتقل بعد ذلك لنقطة جديدة تختص بِـ وجود بعض الخصـآئص التي تغير القـآعدآت تمـآمـآ
وهي مهمـة جداً ولايخلو اختبـآر منهـآ .. قد تأتي بهيئة مثـآل و تكتب له الرول .. أو تشرح له التغيير الذي حدث في الأصوات وهكذآ

من هذهـ الفيتشـرز / الخصـآئص features
لدينا كل قاعدة و عكسها
1/ assimilation & dissimilation
2/ deletion
3/ insertion (the opposite osf insertion)a
4/ thesis
5/ reduplication

آي وآحدة من هذه العمليـآت غير مفهوم .. الرجـآء اخباري و سَـ أشرحهـآ