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Conjunctions
Using Conjunctions
Here are some conjunctions that are frequently used in subordinate clauses:

TIME CAUSE & EFFECT
after because
before since
when now that
while as
as as/so long as
since inasmuch as
until so (that)
as soon as in order that
once
as/so long as
OPPOSITION CONDITION
even though if
although unless
though only if
whereas whether or not
while even if
providing (that)
provided (that)
incase (that)
in the event (that)
When a conjunction is used with a subordinate clause, the construction is called an adverbial clause.
Here are some adverbial clauses that relate to time:
--After we leave the bank, we'll spend the money.
--When they arrived, they sat down to dinner.
--We haven't seen her since she left.
And here are clauses that show cause and effect relationships:
--Since you didn't call, I made other plans.
--He went to bed, because he was tired.
Another way to show a cause and effect relationship is to use such... that and so... that:
--It was such a nice evening that they stayed up too late.
--The lemonade was so cold that she couldn't drink it.
Using When
Previously, you learned how to use when in questions:
--When are you leaving?
When can also be used in a dependent clause:
--I forgot the date when you arrived.
In the latter example, when is used to refer to a noun of time (i.e., a day, week, month, etc.)
In time clauses, it is also possible to use that or which preceded by a preposition:
--I forgot the date that you arrived.
--I forgot the date on which you arrived.
No preposition is needed with that.
Note how two sentences are combined using when:
--I'll always remember the day she was born. She was born then (on that day).
--I'll always remember the day when she was born.
Using Where
Earlier in this course, you learned how to use where in questions:
--Where are you going?
Where can also be used in a dependent clause:
--I see the house where they live.
In the latter example, where is used to refer to a place, such as a city, state, country, room, etc.
NOTE: In dependent clauses, where can be replaced with in which, which ... in, that ... in, or nothing at all:
--The building where they work is new.
--The building in which they work is new.
--The building, which they work in, is new.
--The building that they work in is new.
--The building they work in is new.
Contractions
Contractions
You will want to learn how to use contractions as soon as possible. Contractions are used constantly in informal English. Examples of contracted subject/verb forms are:
TO BE:
I am-->I'm
he is-->he's
we are-->we're
you are-->you're
they are-->they're
TO HAVE:
I have-->I've
we have-->we've
you have-->you've
they have-->they've
Contractions are frequently used with compound forms of verbs, especially the progressive or continuous form of the present tense (I'm going. / We're leaving.) and the present perfect forms (I've received the letter. / They've already left.)
A later lesson will deal with the compound forms of verbs in greater length.
Exclamations
Exclamations!
Most exclamations in English are preceded by what or how:
--What terrible weather!
--How awful!
What is used much more frequently than how in everyday language.
Exclamations can be as brief as one or two words (What a mess!) or as long as a sentence:
--What a way to end my vacation!
NOTE: Don't forget that what and how are most frequently used in questions:
--What did you say?
--How much does it cost?


Interrogatives
Asking Questions
In English, you can ask simple yes/no questions by either inverting the subject and verb or by using rising intonation:
--We can change money here.
(simple, declarative statement)
--Can we change money here?
(question with verb first)
--We can change money here?
(question with rising intonation)
NOTE: In the case of the simple present tense, it is necessary to use a form of the verb to do as an auxiliary in making a question:
--They like this bank.
-->Do they like this bank?
--You have a passport.
-->Do you have a passport?
Interrogatives in Dependent Clauses
In the dialogue for this chapter, you see:
--Do you know where I can cut off the water? (correct)
This construction can be troublesome for learners of English, because there is a tendency to make the dependent clause (where I can cut off...) a question as well:
--Do you know where can I cut off the water? (incorrect)
Both do you know and where can I cut off the water are legitimate questions when used separately. However, when combined in a single sentence the main clause (Do you know...) carries the full weight of the interrogative.
Here are some additional examples:
--Do you see it? Where is it?
-->Do you see where it is?
--Do you know when? When does he arrive?
-->Do you know when he arrives?

Information Questions
Many times you will want to ask a question that elicits information, instead of a simple yes/no answer. Information questions will begin with one of the following words:
WHO
WHERE
WHOM
WHAT
WHOSE
WHICH
WHY
HOW
WHEN
Who refers to people. It is used as the subject of the question.
Whom is used as the object of a verb or preposition.
Whose asks questions about possession.
Why is used to ask questions about reason.
When is used to ask questions about time.
Where is used to ask questions about place.
What can be used as the subject or object of a question. It refers to things.
Which is used instead of what when a question concerns choosing from a definite, known quantity or group.
How generally asks about manner. It is often used with much and many.
When a form of to be is the main verb in the simple present and simple past, it precedes the subject:
--Who is that man?
--Where is the airport?
--Where are the checks?
--What time is it?



Negative Questions
In a yes/no question in which the verb is negative, usually a contraction is used:
--Doesn't she live with you?
The other form, which is not contracted, is considered formal and is rarely used in everyday speech:
--Does she not live with you?
To form a negative question, make the auxiliary negative by adding not:
--Do they cash traveler's checks?
--> Don't they (Do they not) cash...?

HERE ARE SOME MORE EXAMPLES:
--Is Mr. Jones here?
-->Isn't Mr. Jones here?
--Are you coming?
-->Aren't you coming?

Tag Questions
Tag questions are questions that are added at the end of a sentence.
--Mary is here, isn't she?
--You like beer, don't you?
--They are leaving, aren't they?
--She doesn't drink coffee, does she?
--He has brown hair, doesn't he?
The subject of the tag question should be the same as the subject of the main verb. If the first part of the sentence is in the affirmative, then the tag question will be negative, and vice versa.

FIRST PART OF SENTENCE: TAG QUESTION:
affirmative negative
negative affirmative
In American English, a form of do is usually used when have is the main verb: They have change, don't they?